Release Date: 2024-01-19

Evidence-Based Physiotherapy and Rehabilitation Practices in Cerebral Palsy

Yasemin Apaydin (Author), Muge Kirmizi (Author)

Release Date: 2024-01-19

Although a child with cerebral palsy (CP) has developmental problems, it is known that the main problems are related to mobility. The aim of physiotherapy and rehabilitation intervention is to prevent or minimize motor, cognitive, sensory impairments in infants with developmental disadvantage due to biological or environmental risk factors. Starting from infancy until adolescence, the [...]

Media Type
  • PDF

Buy from

Price may vary by retailers

Work TypeBook Chapter
Published inPhysiotherapy and Rehabilitation for Cerebral Palsy
First Page79
Last Page103
DOIhttps://doi.org/10.69860/nobel.9786053358794.5
ISBN978-605-335-879-4 (PDF)
LanguageENG
Page Count25
Copyright HolderNobel Tıp Kitabevleri
Licensehttps://nobelpub.com/publish-with-us/copyright-and-licensing
Although a child with cerebral palsy (CP) has developmental problems, it is known that the main problems are related to mobility. The aim of physiotherapy and rehabilitation intervention is to prevent or minimize motor, cognitive, sensory impairments in infants with developmental disadvantage due to biological or environmental risk factors. Starting from infancy until adolescence, the goal is always to enable individuals with CP to be independent in daily life to the extent permitted by their functional capacity. The main goal in the treatment of mobile children is activities such as walking, standing and postural control. In order to achieve these goals, secondary disorders should be prevented and the musculoskeletal system should be in good condition. In more severely affected children, it is important to ensure postural control, prevent deformities and maximize independence in daily life. Another point to be considered in the treatment is that problems such as spasticity, range of motion, selective control affect the mobility, social function and self-care activities of the child. Many such parameters should be thoroughly evaluated and an appropriate treatment plan should be developed. Treatment should not focus on a single function. Collaboration with the family should be ensured. Environmental enrichment parameters should be prioritized. Elimination of environmental barriers also plays an important role in treatment. All family members should take an active role in the treatment and be involved in the goal-setting process. In this section, the recent physiotherapy and rehabilitation applications in the literature used in individuals with CP from the early period will be summarized.

Yasemin Apaydin (Author)
Lecturer, Recep Tayyip Erdogan University
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6630-2632
3She completed his bachelor degree at Baskent University in 2013. She completed his master of science (2016) and PhD (2021) in the Department of Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation at the Gazi University. Her field of master’s education is "Vestibular Disorders". She has focused on task-oriented training in vestibular disorders. She worked in Gazi University as a research assistant between 2014 and 2021. Now, she is working at Recep Tayyip Erdogan University as an post-doctoral researcher. She has high experience in clinics, academic publications, and international projects in the field of neurologic problems. She has 11 years of experience in the clinic and he still continues to support neurologic patients. She has specialized in neurologic disorders in academic activities such as book chapters, academic publications, and congress presentations. She gives undergraduate courses on rehabilitation of individuals with special needs. Her primary research focus is on "patients with Multiple Sclerosis" “vestibular rehabilitation” and “vestibular disorders”.

Muge Kirmizi (Author)
Asst. Prof. Dr, Izmir Katip Celebi University
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4550-4232
3The author received her undergraduate degree in Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation at Hacettepe University 2014, his master’s degree in Orthopedic Physiotherapy at Dokuz Eylül University in 2017, and his doctorate from the Department of Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation at Dokuz Eylül University in 2022.

  • Akhbari Ziegler, S., Dirks, T., & Hadders-Algra, M. (2019). Coaching in early physical therapy intervention: the COPCA program as an example of translation of theory into practice. Disability and rehabilitation, 41(15), 1846-1854

  • Akpinar, P., Tezel, C. G., Eliasson, A.-C., & Icagasioglu, A. (2010). Reliability and cross-cultural validation of the Turkish version of Manual Ability Classification System (MACS) for children with cerebral palsy. Disability and rehabilitation, 32(23), 1910-1916.

  • Alhusaini, A. A., Dean, C. M., Crosbie, J., Shepherd, R. B., & Lewis, J. (2010). Evaluation of spasticity in children with cerebral palsy using Ashworth and Tardieu Scales compared with laboratory measures. Journal of Child Neurology, 25(10), 1242-1247

  • Allen, M. C., & Alexander, G. R. (1994). Screening for cerebral palsy in preterm infants: delay criteria for motor milestone attainment. Journal of perinatology: official journal of the California Perinatal Association, 14(3), 190-193

  • Arnould, C., Penta, M., Renders, A., & Thonnard, J.-L. (2004). ABILHAND-Kids: a measure of manual ability in children with cerebral palsy. Neurology, 63(6), 1045- 1052

  • Ashwal, S., Russman, B., Blasco, P., Miller, G., Sandler, A., Shevell, M., & Stevenson, R. (2004). Practice parameter: diagnostic assessment of the child with cerebral palsy: report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology and the Practice Committee of the Child Neurology Society. Neurology, 62(6), 851-863

  • Ayalon, M., Ben‐Sira, D., Hutzler, Y., & Gilad, T. (2000). Reliability of isokinetic strength measurements of the knee in children with cerebral palsy. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 42(6), 398-402

  • Ayres, A. J., & Robbins, J. (2005). Sensory integration and the child: Understanding hidden sensory challenges. Western Psychological Se

  • Balmer, G., & MacEwen, G. D. (1970). The incidence and treatment of scoliosis in cerebral palsy. The Journal of Bone & Joint Surgery British Volume, 52(1), 134-137.

  • Baranello, G., Signorini, S., Tinelli, F., Guzzetta, A., Pagliano, E., Rossi, A., . . . Ricci, D. (2020). Visual Function Classification System for children with cerebral palsy: development and validation. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 62(1), 104-110

  • Barbosa, V. M., Campbell, S. K., Sheftel, D., Singh, J., & Beligere, N. (2003). Longitudinal performance of infants with cerebral palsy on the Test of Infant Motor Performance and on the Alberta Infant Motor Scale. Physical & Occupational Therapy in Pediatrics, 23(3), 7-29.

  • Baroncelli, L., Braschi, C., Spolidoro, M., Begenisic, T., Sale, A., & Maffei, L. (2010). Nurturing brain plasticity: impact of environmental enrichment. Cell Death & Differentiation, 17(7), 109

  • Benzies, K. M., Magill-Evans, J. E., Hayden, K. A., & Ballantyne, M. (2013). Key components of early intervention programs for preterm infants and their parents: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC pregnancy and childbirth, 13, 1-15.

  • Blasco, P. A. (1994). Primitive reflexes: their contribution to the early detection of cerebral palsy. Clinical pediatrics, 33(7),

  • Bodison, S. C., & Parham, L. D. (2018). Specific sensory techniques and sensory environmental modifications for children and youth with sensory integration difficulties: A systematic review. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 72(1), 7201190040p7201190041-7201190040p7201190011.

  • Boyer, E. R., Stout, J. L., Laine, J. C., Gutknecht, S. M., De Oliveira, L. H. A., Munger, M. E., . . . Novacheck, T. F. (2018). Long-term outcomes of distal femoral extension osteotomy and patellar tendon advancement in individuals with cerebral palsy. JBJS, 100(1), 31-41.

  • Brauer, J., Xiao, Y., Poulain, T., Friederici, A. D., & Schirmer, A. (2016). Frequency of maternal touch predicts resting activity and connectivity of the developing social brain. Cerebral Cortex, 26(8), 3544-3552.

  • Brown, C., Hillman, S., Richardson, A., Herman, J., & Robb, J. (2008). Reliability and validity of the Visual Gait Assessment Scale for children with hemiplegic cerebral palsy when used by experienced and inexperienced observers. Gait & posture, 27(4), 648-652.

  • Burns, Y. R., Ensbey, R. M., & Norrie, M. A. (1989). The neuro-sensory motor developmental assessment part II: predictive and concurrent validity. Australian Journal of Physiotherapy, 35(3), 151-157

  • Campbell, S. K., & Hedeker, D. (2001). Validity of the Test of Infant Motor Performance for discriminating among infants with varying risk for poor motor outcome. The Journal of pediatrics, 139(4), 546-551.

  • Campbell, S. K., Kolobe, T. H., Osten, E. T., Lenke, M., & Girolami, G. L. (1995). Construct validity of the test of infant motor performance. Physical Therapy, 75(7), 585-596.

  • Cans, C., McManus, V., Crowley, M., Guillem, P., Platt, M. J., Johnson, A., . . . group, S. c. (2004). Cerebral palsy of post‐neonatal origin: characteristics and risk factors. Paediatric and perinatal epidemiology, 18(3), 214-220.

  • Carey, H., Martin, K., Combs-Miller, S., & Heathcock, J. C. (2016). Reliability and responsiveness of the timed up and go test in children with cerebral palsy. Pediatric physical therapy, 28(4), 401-408.

  • Celik, H. I., Elbasan, B., Gucuyener, K., Kayihan, H., & Huri, M. (2018). Investigation of the relationship between sensory processing and motor development in preterm infants. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 72(1), 7201195020p7201195021- 7201195020p7201195027.

  • Cioni, G., Inguaggiato, E., & Sgandurra, G. (2016). Early intervention in neurodevelopmental disorders: underlying neural mechanisms. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 58, 61-66.

  • Constantinou, J. C., Adamson-Macedo, E. N., Mirmiran, M., & Fleisher, B. E. (2007). Movement, imaging and neurobehavioral assessment as predictors of cerebral palsy in preterm infants. Journal of Perinatology, 27(4), 225-2

  • Cowan, F. M., & De Vries, L. S. (2005). The internal capsule in neonatal imaging. Seminars in Fetal and Neonatal Medic

  • Critz, C., Blake, K., & Nogueira, E. (2015). Sensory processing challenges in children. The Journal for Nurse Practitioners, 11(7), 710-716.

  • Cupute, A. J., Palmer, F. B., Shupiro, B. K., Wuchtel, R. C., Ross, A., & Accurdo, P. J. (1984). Primitive reflex profile: A quantitation of primitive reflexes in infancy. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 2

  • Curran, J. A., Gallant, A. J., Zemek, R., Newton, A. S., Jabbour, M., Chorney, J., . . . Plint, A. (2019). Discharge communication practices in pediatric emergency care: a systematic review and narrative synthesis. Systematic reviews, 8(1), 83.

  • Darsaklis, V., Snider, L. M., Majnemer, A., & Mazer, B. (2011). Predictive validity of Prechtl’s method on the qualitative assessment of general movements: a systematic review of the evidence. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 53(10), 896- 906.

  • de Paula Machado, A. C. C., de Castro Magalhães, L., de Oliveira, S. R., & Bouzada, M. C. F. (2019). Is sensory processing associated with prematurity, motor and cognitive development at 12 months of age? Early human development, 139, 104852

  • DeMatteo, C., Law, M., Russell, D., Pollock, N., Rosenbaum, P., & Walter, S. (1993). The reliability and validity of the Quality of Upper Extremity Skills Test. Physical & Occupational Therapy in Pediatrics, 13(2), 1-18.

  • Dunstan, E., & Griffiths, S. (2008). Sensory strategies: Practical support to empower families. New Zealand Journal of Occupational Therapy, 55(1), 5.

  • Dusing, S., Burnsed, J., Brown, S., Harper, A., Hendricks-Munoz, K., Stevenson, R., . . . Khurana, S. (2020). Efficacy of Supporting Play Exploration and Early Development Intervention (SPEEDI) in the First Months of Life for Infants Born Very Preterm: 3-Arm Randomized Clinical Trial Protocol. Physical Therapy

  • Dusing, S. C., Tripathi, T., Marcinowski, E. C., Thacker, L. R., Brown, L. F., & Hendricks-Muñoz, K. D. (2018). Supporting play exploration and early developmental intervention versus usual care to enhance development outcomes during the transition from the neonatal intensive care unit to home: a pilot randomized controlled trial. BMC pediatrics, 18(1), 46

  • Eliasson, A.-C., Krumlinde-Sundholm, L., Rösblad, B., Beckung, E., Arner, M., Öhrvall, A.-M., & Rosenbaum, P. (2006). The Manual Ability Classification System (MACS) for children with cerebral palsy: scale development and evidence of validity and reliability. Developmental medicine and child neurology, 48(7), 549-554

  • Eliasson, A.-C., Nordstrand, L., Ek, L., Lennartsson, F., Sjöstrand, L., Tedroff, K., & Krumlinde-Sundholm, L. (2018). The effectiveness of Baby-CIMT in infants younger than 12 months with clinical signs of unilateral-cerebral palsy; an ex-plorative study with randomized design. Research in developmental disabilities, 72, 191-201.

  • Ellison, P. H. (1994). The INFANIB: A reliable method for the neuromotor assessment of Infants. Therapy Skill Builders

  • Erden, A., Acar Arslan, E., Dündar, B., Topbaş, M., & Cavlak, U. (2021). Reliability and validity of Turkish version of pediatric balance scale. Acta Neurologica Belgica, 121(3), 669-675

  • Eyre, J. (2013). Corticospinal tract development and activity-dependent plasticity. Cerebral Palsy in Infancy E-Book: targeted activity to optimize early growth and development, 53-71.

  • Feldman, A. B., Haley, S. M., & Coryell, J. (1990). Concurrent and construct validity of the Pediatric Evaluation of Disability Inventory. Physical Therapy, 70(10), 602-610.

  • Ferrari, F., Cioni, G., Einspieler, C., Roversi, M. F., Bos, A. F., Paolicelli, P. B., . . . Prechtl, H. F. (2002). Cramped synchronized general movements in preterm infants as an early marker for cerebral palsy. Archives of pediatrics & adolescent medicine, 156(5), 460-467

  • Ferrari, F., Einspieler, C., Prechtl, H., Bos, A., & Cioni, G. (2004). Prechtl’s method on the qualitative assessment of general movements in preterm, term and young infants. Mac Keith Press.

  • Fowler, E. G., Staudt, L. A., Greenberg, M. B., & Oppenheim, W. L. (2009). Selective Control Assessment of the Lower Extremity (SCALE): development, validation, and interrater reliability of a clinical tool for patients with cerebral palsy. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 51(8), 607-614

  • Francis, S. H. (1971). The effects of own-home and institution-rearing on the behavioural development of normal and mongol children. Child Psychology & Psychiatry & Allied Disciplines.

  • Gibson, E. J. (1988). Exploratory behavior in the development of perceiving, acting, and the acquiring of knowledge. Annual review of psychology, 39(1), 1-42.

  • Graham, H. K., Rosenbaum, P., Paneth, N., Dan, B., Lin, J.-P., Damiano, D. L., . . . Reddihough, D. S. (2016). Erratum: cerebral palsy. Nature Reviews Disease Primers, 2(1), 1-1

  • GÜNEL, M. K. (2010). Pediatrik Fizyoterapi ve Rehabilitasyon Uygulamalarında Nörogelişimsel Tedavi Yaklaşımı. Türkiye Klinikleri Fiziksel Tıp ve Rehabilitasyon-Özel Konular, 3(3), 1-

  • Haataja, L., Mercuri, E., Regev, R., Cowan, F., Rutherford, M., Dubowitz, V., & Dubowitz, L. (1999). Optimality score for the neurologic examination of the infant at 12 and 18 months of age. The Journal of pediatrics, 135(2), 153-161.

  • Hadders-Algra, M. (2014). Early diagnosis and early intervention in cerebral palsy. Frontiers in neurology, 5, 109575.

  • Hadders-Algra, M., & Prechtl, H. (1992). Developmental course of general movements in early infancy. I. Descriptive analysis of change in form. Early human development, 28(3), 201-213

  • Hammond Jr, B. R. (2013). Sensory Decline Is the Gateway to Cognitive Decline. The 114th Abbott Nutrition Research Conference,

  • Hebb, D. O. (1947). The effects of early experience on problem-solving at maturity. American psychologist, 2, 306-307.

  • Hebb, D. O. (1947). The effects of early experience on problem-solving at maturity. American psychologist, 2, 306-307.

  • Hermansson, L., Sköld, A., & Eliasson, A.-C. (2013). Bimanual Hand-use in Children with Unilateral Hand Dysfunction-Differences Related to Diagnosis Investigated by the Children’s Hand-use Experience Questionnaire. Pediat Therapeut(4), 169

  • Hielkema, T., BLAUW‐HOSPERS, C. H., Dirks, T., DRIJVER‐MESSELINK, M., Bos, A. F., & HADDERS‐ALGRA, M. (2011). Does physiotherapeutic intervention affect motor outcome in high‐risk infants? An approach combining a randomized controlled trial and process evaluation. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 53(3), e8-e15

  • Himmelmann, K., Horber, V., De La Cruz, J., Horridge, K., Mejaski‐Bosnjak, V., Hollody, K., . . . Bakel, V. (2017). MRI classification system (MRICS) for children with cerebral palsy: development, reliability, and recommendations. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 59(1), 57-64.

  • Himmelmann, K., & Uvebrant, P. (2011). Function and neuroimaging in cerebral palsy: a population‐based study. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 53(6), 516-521.

  • Howle, J. M. (2002). Neuro-developmental treatment approach: theoretical foundations and principles of clinical practice. NeuroDevelopmental Treatment.

  • Hrbek, A., Karlberg, P., & Olsson, T. (1973). Development of visual and somatosensory evoked responses in pre-term newborn infants. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 34(3), 225-232

  • Hughes-Scholes, C. H., Gatt, S. L., Davis, K., Mahar, N., & Gavidia-Payne, S. (2016). Preliminary evaluation of the implementation of a routines-based early childhood intervention model in Australia: Practitioners’ perspectives. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 36(1), 3

  • Ito, T., Hashimoto, K., Kadowaki, K., Nagata, N., Makio, A., Takahashi, H., . . . Terakawa, N. (1997). Ultrasonographic findings in the periventricular region in premature newborns with antenatal periventricular leukomalac

  • Johnston, M. V., Ishida, A., Ishida, W. N., Matsushita, H. B., Nishimura, A., & Tsuji, M. (2009). Plasticity and injury in the developing brain. Brain and Development, 31(1), 1-10.

  • Kadhim, M., Holmes Jr, L., & Miller, F. (2012). Correlation of radiographic and pedobarograph measurements in planovalgus foot deformity. Gait & posture, 36(2), 177-181

  • Kandel, E. R., Schwartz, J. H., Jessell, T. M., Biochemistry, D. o., Jessell, M. B. T., Siegelbaum, S., & Hudspeth, A. (2000). Principles of neural science (Vol. 4). McGraw-hill New York.

  • Katz, K., Rosenthal, A., & Yosipovitch, Z. (1992). Normal ranges of popliteal angle in children. Journal of pediatric orthopaedics, 12(2), 229-231.

  • Kessenich, M. (2003). Developmental outcomes of premature, low birth weight, and medically fragile infants. Newborn and Infant Nursing Reviews, 3(3), 80-87.

  • Kirton, A., Shroff, M., Visvanathan, T., & deveber, G. (2007). Quantified corticospinal tract diffusion restriction predicts neonatal stroke outcome. Stroke, 38(3), 974-980

  • Krägeloh-Mann, I., Helber, A., Mader, I., Staudt, M., Wolff, M., Groenendaal, F., & DeVries, L. (2002). Bilateral lesions of thalamus and basal ganglia: origin and outcome. Developmental medicine and child neurology, 44(7), 477-484.

  • Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (2002). Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and task motivation: A 35-year odyssey. American psychologist, 57(9), 705.

  • Lowes, L. P., Mayhan, M., Orr, T., Batterson, N., Tonneman, J. A., Meyer, A., . . . Nelin, M. A. (2014). Pilot study of the efficacy of constraint-induced movement therapy for infants and toddlers with cerebral palsy. Physical & occupational therapy in pediatrics, 34(1), 4-21

  • Mackey, A. H., Lobb, G. L., Walt, S. E., & Stott, N. S. (2003). Reliability and validity of the Observational Gait Scale in children with spastic diplegia. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 45(1), 4-11.

  • Madayi, A., Shi, L., Zhu, Y., Daniel, L. M., Noordin, A. A., Sherwood, S. A. M., . . . Agarwal, P. K. (2021). The Test of Infant Motor Performance (TIMP) in very low birth weight infants and outcome at two years of age. Journal of Perinatology, 41(10), 2432-2441

  • Maitre, N. L., Slaughter, J. C., & Aschner, J. L. (2013). Early prediction of cerebral palsy after neonatal intensive care using motor development trajectories in infancy. Early human development, 89(10), 781-786.

  • Martin, J. H., Chakrabarty, S., & Friel, K. M. (2011). Harnessing activity‐dependent plasticity to repair the damaged corticospinal tract in an animal model of cerebral palsy. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 53, 9-13.

  • Martin, J. H., Kably, B., & Hacking, A. (1999). Activity-dependent development of cortical axon terminations in the spinal cord and brain stem. Experimental brain research, 125, 184-199.

  • Mayston, M. (2014). Intervention planning, implementation and evaluation. In. Wiley. McWilliam, R. A., Casey, A. M., & Sims, J. (2009). The routines-based interview: A method for gathering information and assessing needs. Infants & Young Children, 22(3), 224-233

  • Ment, L., Bada, H., Barnes, P., Grant, P., Hirtz, D., Papile, L., . . . Slovis, T. (2002). Practice parameter: Neuroimaging of the neonate: Report of the QSS of the AAN and the Practice Committee of the CNS: Reply from the Authors. NEUROLOGY-MINNEAPOLIS-, 59(11), 1663-1663

  • Moran, M. F., Sanders, J. O., Sharkey, N. A., & Piazza, S. J. (2004). Effect of attachment site and routing variations in split tendon transfer of tibialis posterior. Journal of pediatric orthopaedics, 24(3), 298-303.

  • Morgan, C., Novak, I., Dale, R. C., & Badawi, N. (2015). Optimising motor learning in infants at high risk of cerebral palsy: a pilot study. BMC pediatrics, 15(1), 30.

  • Morgan, C., Novak, I., Dale, R. C., Guzzetta, A., & Badawi, N. (2014). GAME (Goals-Activity-Motor Enrichment): protocol of a single blind randomised controlled trial of motor training, parent education and environmental enrichment for infants at high risk of cerebral palsy. BMC neurology, 14(1), 203.

  • Morgan, C., Novak, I., Dale, R. C., Guzzetta, A., & Badawi, N. (2016). Single blind randomised controlled trial of GAME (Goals⿿ Activity⿿ Motor Enrichment) in infants at high risk of cerebral palsy. Research in developmental disabilities, 55, 256- 267

  • Morgan, C., Romeo, D. M., Chorna, O., Novak, I., Galea, C., Del Secco, S., & Guzzetta, A. (2019). The pooled diagnostic accuracy of neuroimaging, general movements, and neurological examination for diagnosing cerebral palsy early in high-risk infants: a case control study. Journal of clinical medicine, 8(11), 187

  • Mutlu, A., Livanelioglu, A., & Korkmaz, A. (2010). Assessment of ” general movements” in high-risk infants by Prechtl analysis during early intervention period in the first year of life. The Turkish Journal of Pediatrics, 52(6), 630

  • Nelson, K. B., & Ellenberg, J. H. (1979). Neonatal signs as predictors of cerebral palsy. Pediatrics, 64(2), 225-232

  • Nithianantharajah, J., & Hannan, A. J. (2006). Enriched environments, experience-dependent plasticity and disorders of the nervous system. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 7(9), 697-709.

  • Novak, I., Morgan, C., Adde, L., Blackman, J., Boyd, R. N., Brunstrom-Hernandez, J., . . . Eliasson, A.-C. (2017). Early, accurate diagnosis and early intervention in cerebral palsy: advances in diagnosis and treatment. JAMA pediatrics, 171(

  • Novak, I., Morgan, C., Fahey, M., Finch-Edmondson, M., Galea, C., Hines, A., . . . Popat, H. (2020). State of the Evidence Traffic Lights 2019: Systematic Review of Interventions for Preventing and Treating Children with Cerebral Palsy. Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports, 20(2), 1-21.

  • Palisano, R. J., Rosenbaum, P., Bartlett, D., & Livingston, M. H. (2008). Content validity of the expanded and revised Gross Motor Function Classification System. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 50(10), 744-750

  • Palmer, F. B. (2002). First, observe the patient. Archives of pediatrics & adolescent medicine, 156(5), 422-423.

  • Palmer, F. B. (2004). Strategies for the early diagnosis of cerebral palsy. The Journal of pediatrics, 145(2), S8-S11.

  • Pape, K. E., Bennett-Britton, S., Szymonowicz, W., Martin, D. J., Fitz, C. R., & Becker, L. (1983). Diagnostic accuracy of neonatal brain imaging: a postmortem correlation of computed tomography and ultrasound scans. The Journal of pediatrics, 102(2), 275-280.

  • Persson-Bunke, M., Hägglund, G., Lauge-Pedersen, H., Wagner, P., & Westbom, L. (2012). Scoliosis in a total population of children with cerebral palsy. Spine, 37(12), E708-E713

  • Piper, M. C., & Darrah, J. (1994). Motor assessment of the developing infant. (No Title).

  • Prechtl, H. F. (2001). General movement assessment as a method of developmental neurology: New paradigms and their consequences The 1999 Ronnie MacKeith Lecture. Developmental medicine and child neurology, 43(12), 836-842.

  • Raghupathy, M. K., Rao, B. K., Nayak, S. R., Spittle, A. J., & Parsekar, S. S. (2020). Effect of Family-centered Care Interventions on Motor and Neurobehavior Development of Very Preterm Infants: A Protocol of Systematic Review

  • Read, H., Hazlewood, M., Hillmann, S., Robb, J., & Prescott, R. (2002). A visual gait analysis score for use in cerebral palsy: the Edinburgh Visual Gait Score. Gait Posture, 16, S115-S116

  • Reid, S. M., Dagia, C. D., Ditchfield, M. R., Carlin, J. B., & Reddihough, D. S. (2014). Population‐based studies of brain imaging patterns in cerebral palsy. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 56(3), 222-232

  • Rethlefsen, S. A., Nguyen, D. T., Wren, T. A., Milewski, M. D., & Kay, R. M. (2015). Knee pain and patellofemoral symptoms in patients with cerebral palsy. Journal of pediatric orthopaedics, 35(5), 519-522.

Share This Chapter!