1. Lozano R, Naghavi M, Foreman K, et al. Global and regional mortality from 235 causes of death for 20 age groups in 1990 and 2010: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease
Study 2010. Lancet 2012; 380: 2095–2128
2. Tessier JM, Scheld WM. Basic Science of Central Nervous System Infections In: Winn R (ed) Youmans Neurological Surgery. Sixth Edition, Philadelphia Elsevier, 2011; 544-559
3. Greeenlee JE, Carroll KC. Cerebrospinal fluid in central nervous system infections. In Scheld WM, Whitley RJ, Marra CM (eds). Infections of the Central Nervous System. Lippincott Williams
and Wilkins, Philadelphia, third edition, 2004; 5–30
4. Irani DN, Griffin DE. Approach to the patient with infection of the central nervous system. In: Gorbach SL, Barlett JG, Blacklow NR (eds) Infectious Diseases. Lippincott Williams and
Wilkins, Philadelphia, third edition, 2004:1259–1263
5. Strazeille N, Ghersi-Egea JF. Choroid plexus in the central nervous system; biology and physiopathology. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2000; 59 (7): 561–574
6. Wright BLC, Lai JTF, Sinclair AJ. Cerebrospinal fluid and lumbar puncture: a practical review. J Neurol 2012; 259:1530–1545
7. Chong PLH, Garic D, ShenMD, Lundgaard I, Schwichtenberg AJ. Sleep, Cerebrospinal Fluid, and the Glymphatic System: A Systematic Review. Sleep Med Rev 2022; 61: 101572
8. Engelhardt B. Development of the blood-brain barrier. Cell Tissue Res 2003;314 (1):119–129
9. Gloor SM, Watctel M, Bolliger MF, Ishihara H, Landmann R, Frei K. Molecular and cellular permeability control at the blood-brain barrier. Brain Res Brain Res Rev 2001; 36 (2): 258–264
10. Tunkel AR. Approach to the patients with central nervous system infection. In: Mandel LG, Bennett JE, Dolin R (eds). Principles and Practices of Infectious Diseases. Philadelphia, seventh
edition. Elsevier Churchill Livingstone, 2010:1183–1188.
11. Aiken AH. Central nervous system infection. Neuroimag Clin N Am 2010; 20: 557–580
12. Marra CM, Whitley RJ, Scheld WM. Approach to the patient with central nervous system infection. In Scheld WM, Whitley RJ, Marra CM (eds). Infections of The Central Nervous System.
Philadelphia, Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, third edition, 2004: 1-4
13. Roos KL, Tyler KL. Meningitis, encephalitis, brain abscess, and empyema. In: Kasper DL, Fauci AS, Longo DL, Braunwald E, Hauser SL, Jameson JL, Loscalzo J (eds). Harrison’s Principles of
Internal Medicine. New York, McGraw-Hill, 16th ed, 2008: 2638-2658
14. James Riddell J, Shuman EK. Epidemiology of Central Nervous System Infection. Neuroimag Clin N Am 2012; 22: 543–556
15. http://www.uptodate.com/contents/epidemiology of bacterial meningitis in adults. Erişim 20Kasım, 2013
16. Meurer WJ, Lavoie FW. Central Nervous System Infections. In: Marx J, Hockberger R. Walls R (eds).Rosen’s Emergency Medicine Elsewier Philadelphia 7th edition. 2010;1416-1429
17. Richard T, Johnson RT. Emerging viral infections of the nervous system J Neurovirol 2003; 9: 140–147
18. Handique SK. Viral Infections of the Central Nervous System. Neuroimag Clin N Am 2011; 21: 777–794
19. Brouwer MC, Tunkel AR, van de Beek D. Epidemiology, diagnosis, and antimicrobial treatment of acute bacterial meningitis. Clin Microbiol Rev 2010; 23: 467–492.
20. Koedel U, Klein M, Pfister HW. New understandings on the pathophysiology of bacterial meningitis. Curr Opin Infect Dis 2010; 23: 217-223
21. McKeever PE.Pathologic Basis of Central Nervous System Infections. Neuroimag Clin N Am 2012;22: 773–790
22. Gould CV, Lautenbach E. Meningitis and encephalitis. In Loeb M, Smieja M, Smaill F (eds). Evidence-based Infectious Diseases, London, BMJ Books, London, 2004; 52-70
23. Saez-Llorens X, McCracken GH. Bacterial meningitis in children. The Lancet; 2003; 361 (9375): 2139-2148
24. Kastenbauer S, Pfister HW, Wıspelwev B, Scheld WM. Brain abscess. In Scheld WM, Whitley RJ, Marra CM (eds). Infections of The Central Nervous System. Philadelphia, Lippincott Williams
and Wilkins, third edition, 2004: 479–507
25. Sarrazin JL, Bonneville F, Martin-Blondelc G. Brain infections. Diagnostic and Interventional Imaging 2012; 93: 473—490.
26. Hsu HE, Shoot K, Moore ME.et al. Effect of pneumococcal conjugate vaccine on pneumococcal meningitis. N England J Med 2009; 360 (3):344-356. 26. McIntyre PB, O’Brien KL, Greenwood
B, van de Beek D. Effect of vaccines on bacterial meningitis worldwide. Lancet 2012; 380:1703-1711.
27. McIntyre PB, O’Brien KL, Greenwood B, van de Beek D. Effect of vaccines on bacterial meningitis worldwide. Lancet 2012; 380:1703-1711.
28. Liu L, Johnson HL, Cousens S, et al. Global, regional, and national causes of child mortality: an updated systematic analysis for 2010 with time trends since 2000. Lancet 2012; 379: 2151–2161
29. Kupila L, Vuorinen T, Vainionpaa R, et al. Etiology of aseptic meningitis and encephalitis in an adult population. Neurology 2006; 66 (1): 75–80
30. Van de Beek D. Acute and chronic meningitis. In: Infectious Diseases (eds) Cohen J, Powderly WG, Opal SM. Elsevier Ltd MOSBY, Third edition 2010; 206-219
31. Thwaites GE, Chau TTH, Stepniewska K, et al. Diagnosis of adult tuberculous meningitis by use of clinical and laboratory features. Lancet 2002; 360:1287–1292
32. Benneth JE. Chronic Meningitis. In: Mandell GL, Bennet JE, Dolin R (eds). Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases. 6th ed. Philadelphia: Elsevier Curchill Livingstone 2010: 1237-1242
33. Yetkin MA, Bulut C, Erdinc FS, Oral B, Tulek N. Evaluation of the clinical presentations in neurobrucellosis. Int J Infect Dis 2006;10 (6):446–452
34. Mahan Mathur M, Johnson CE, Sze G. Fungal Infections of the Central Nervous System Neuroimag Clin N Am 2012;22: 609–632
35. Bloch KC, Glaser CA, Tunkel AR Encephalitis and myelitis.In: Cohen C, Powderly WG, Opal SM (eds) Infectious Diseases Elsevier Ltd., 2010 third edition China, 218-226.
36. Ergunay K, Sayiner AA, Litzba N, et al. Multicentre evaluation of central nervous system infections due to Flavi and Phleboviruses in Turkey. J Infect 2012; 65: 343e-349
37. Jmor F, Emsley HC, Fischer M, et al. The incidence of acute encephalitis syndrome in Western industrialised and tropical countries. Virol J 2008; 5:134
38. Bernardini GL. Diagnosis and management of brain abscess and subdural empyema. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep 2004; 4: 448–456
39. Brook I Townsend GC. Brain abscess and other focal pyogenic infections of the central nervous system In: Cohen C, Powderly WG, Opal SM (eds) Infectious Diseases Elsevier Ltd, China,
third edition, 2010; 227-237
40. Jason A. Heth JA. Neurosurgical Aspects of Central Nervous System Infections. Neuroimag Clin N Am 2012;22: 791–799
41. McClelland S. Postoperative intracranial neurosurgery infection rates in North America versus Europe: a systematic analysis. Am J Infect Control 2008; 36 (8):570–573.
42. Stenehjem E, Armstrong WS. Central Nervous System Device Infections. Infect Dis Clin N Am 2012; 26: 89–110.
43. Straus SE, Thorpe KE, Holroyd-Leduc J. How do I perform a lumbar puncture and analyze the results to diagnose bacterial meningitis? JAMA 2006; 296: 2012-2022
44. Hughes DC, Raghavan A, Mordekar SR, Griffiths PD, Connolly DJ. Role of imaging in the diagnosis of acute bacterial meningitis and its complications. Postgrad Med J 2010; 86:478–485
45. Tunkel AR, Hartman BJ, Kaplan SL, et al. Practice guidelines for the management of bacterial meningitis. Clin Infect Dis 2004; 39:1267–1284
46. Lay CM. Low Cerebrospinal fluid pressure headache. Curr Treat Options Neurol 2002; 4 (5):357–363
47. Bonsu BK, Harper MB. Accuracy and test characteristics of ancillary tests of cerebrospinal fluid. Academic Emergency Medicine 2005; 12 (4): 303–309
48. Seehusen DA, Reeves MM, Demıtrı A, Fomın DA. Cerebrospinal fluid analysis. Am Fam Physician 2003; 68:1103–1108
49. Mazor SS, McNulty JE, Roosevelt GE. Interpretation of traumatic lumbar punctures: Who can go home? Pediatrics 2003; 111 (3): 525- 528
50. Lo Re V, Stephen J. Gluckman SJ. Eosinophilic Meningitis Am J Med. 2003;114:217–223
51. Matthijs C Brouwer, Guy E Thwaites, Allan R Tunkel, Diederik van de Beek. Dilemmas in the diagnosis of acute community-acquired bacterial meningitis. Lancet 2012; 380: 1684–1692
52. Vilaa J, Jordi Boscha J, Munoz-Almagro C. Molecular diagnosis of the central nervous system (CNS) infections. Enfermedades Infecciosas y Microbiología Clínica 2012;39:403–410
53. Thwaites GE, Hien GE. Tuberculous meningitis: many questions, too few answers. Lancet Neurol 2005; 4: 160–170
54. Van Gastel E, Bruynseels P, Verstrepen W, Mertens A. Evaluation of a realtime polymerase chain reaction assay for the diagnosis of pneumococcal and meningococcal meningitis in a tertiary
care hospital. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2007; 26: 651–53
55. Mamoojee Y, Chadwick D.How appropriate are cerebrospinal fluid polymerase chain reaction requests for suspected central nervous system infections? Clin Medicine 2011:11 (6): 554–557
56. Steiner I, Schmutzhard E, Sellner J, Chaudhuri A, Kennedy PG. EFNSENS guidelines for the use of PCR technology for the diagnosis of infections of the nervous system. Eur J Neurol. 2012;19
(10):1278-1291
57. Haldar S, Sharma N, Gupta VK, Tyagi JS. Efficient diagnosis of tuberculous meningitis by detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis DNA in cerebrospinal fluid filtrates using PCR. J Med
Microbiol 2009;58 (5): 616–624
58. Elfaitouri A, Mohamed N, Fohlman J, et al. Quantitative PCR-enhanced immunoassay for measurement of enteroviral immunoglobulin M antibody and diagnosis of aseptic meningitis. Clin
Diagn Lab Immunol 2005; 12: 235–241
59. Lu H Z, Bloch KC, Tang YW. Molecular techniques in the diagnosis of central nervous system infections. Curr Infect Dis Rep. 2002; 4: 339–350
60. Rhoade RE, Tabor-Godwin JM, Tsueng G, Feuer R. Enterovirus infections of the central nervous system. Virology 2011;411: 288–305
61. Tunkel AR, Glaser CA, Bloch KC et al. The Management of Encephalitis: Clinical Practice Guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis 2008;47 (3): 303-327
62. Boving MK, Pedersen LN, Moller JK. Eight-plex PCR and liquid-array detection of bacterial and viral pathogens in cerebrospinal fl uid from patients with suspected meningitis. J Clin Mic-
robiol 2009; 47: 908–913
63. Lu H, Zhou Y, Yin Y, Pan X, Weng X. Cryptococcal antigen test revisited: significance for cryptococcal meningitis therapy monitoring in a tertiary Chinese hospital. J Clin Microbiol 2005; 43:
2989–2990
64. Leib SL, Boscacci R, Gratzl O, Zimmerli W. Predictive value of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) lactate level versus CSF/blood glucose ratio for the diagnosis of bacterial meningitis following neuro-
surgery. Clin Infect Dis 1999; 29 (1):69–74.
65. de Almeida SM, Faria FL, de Goes FK, et al. Quantitation of cerebrospinal fluid lactic acid in infectious and non-infectious neurological diseases. Clin Chem Lab Med. 2009; 47 (6):755-61
66. Viallon A, Desseigne N, Marjollet O, et al. Meningitis in adult patients with a negative direct cerebrospinal fluid examination: value of cytochemical markers for differential diagnosis. Crit
Care 2011, 15: R136
67. Yekani M, Memar MY. Immunologic biomarkers for bacterial meningitis. Clinica Chimica Acta 2023; 548: 117470
68. Uysal G, Tulek N, Yuksel G, Yüksel S. Menenjitlerde serum ve beyinomurilik sıvısında C-reaktif protein ve interlökin-6 düzeyi. KLİMİK Dergisi 1999;12 (3):89–92.
69. Dubos, F, B. Korczowski, D. A. Aygun et al. Serum procalcitonin level and other biological markers to distinguish between bacterial and aseptic meningitis in children: a European multicenter
case cohort study. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2008. 162:1157–1163.
70. Coutinho LG, Grandgirard D, Leib SL, Agnez-Lima LF.Cerebrospinalfluid cytokine and chemokine profile in patients with pneumococcal and meningococcal meningitis. BMC Infect Dis
2013, 13:326:1-9
71. Fitch MT, Abrahamian FM, Moran GJ, Talan DA. Emergency Department Management of Meningitis and Encephalitis. Infect Dis Clin N Am 2008; 22: 33–52.
72. Mullins ME. Emergent neuroimaging of Intracranial Infection/ Inflammation. Radiol Clin N Am. 2011; 49: 47–62.
73. Molton J, Spelman D. Central nervous system infections in intensive care patients Anasthesia Intensive Care Med. 2012;13 (4): 176-180
74. Short WR, Tunkel AR. Timing of administration of antimicrobial therapy in bacterial meningitis. Curr Infect Dis Rep 2001; 3:360–364.
75. Roland Nau, Fritz Sorgel and Helmut Eiffert. Penetration of Drugs through the Blood-Cerebrospinal Fluid/Blood-Brain. Clin Microbiol. 2010; (10): 858–883
76. Van de Beek D, Brouwer MC, hwaites GE, Tunkel AR. Advances in treatment of bacterial meningitis. Lancet 2012; 380: 1693–1702
77. Raschilas F, Wolff M, Delatour F, et al. Outcome of and prognostic factors for herpes simplex encephalitis in adult patients: results of a multicenter study. Clin Infect Dis 2002;35: 254- 260
78. Tack MA. Empiric antimicrobial therapy for suspected infection of the central nervous system In: Cohen C, Powderly WG, Opal SM (eds) Infectious Diseases, Elsevier Ltd. third edition China,
2010, 260-262
79. Cho TA, Venna N. Management of Acute, Recurrent, and Chronic Meningitides in Adults Neurol Clin 2010; 28: 1061–1088
80. Gundamraj S, Rodrigo Hasbun R. The Use of Adjunctive Steroids in Central Nervous Infections. Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology 2020;10:592017
81. Brouwer MC, McIntyre P, Prasad K, van de Beek D. Corticosteroids for acute bacterial meningitis. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2013, Issue 6. Art. No.: CD004405. DOI:
10.1002/14651858. CD004405
82. Molyneux EM, Walsh AL, Forsyt H, et al. Dexamethasone treatment in childhood bacterial meningitis in Malawi: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2002; 360: 211–218.
83. Prasad K, Singh MB. Corticosteroids for managing tuberculous meningitis. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2008, Issue 1. Art. No.: CD002244. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD002244.
pub3
84. Part VI Opportunistic Infections. Immune Reconstitution Inflammatory Syndrome (IRIS), Life-threatening CNS-IRIS: TB-meningitis. EACS Guideline 10.0 2019;104